Despite recognition of significant sex differences in susceptibility to stress related disorders such as drug abuse, depression and anxiety, the majority of animal models historically study only male populations. Moreover, the majority of preclinical and clinical studies are not designed to assess sex differences in therapeutic efficacy. Thus there is a lack of understanding of sex-biased mechanisms in the pathogenesis of these disorders, making strategies for sex specific pharmacotherapy unclear. This symposium focuses on studies involving sex differences in pharmacotherapy from clinical to preclinical models and spans layers of analysis from physiology to behavior.